where Ei is the mean weight of the brain and Pi the mean weight of the body (Jerison, 1973). In the upper neck, a complex pressure-regulation system called the rete mirabile prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the giraffe lowers its head to drink. Accordingly, only a very few articles discussing encephalization mentioned the giraffe or used it in their calculations. Ariëns Kappers et al. Moreover, the state of nutrition of the animals described is not verifiable: They were often considered exotic and housed with poor husbandry and only an approximate knowledge of their diet and requirements, frequently succumbing to the climate within a few months of their arrival in city zoos or parks (Cobbold, 1854). To our knowledge, only a few articles (Pérez‐Barbería and Gordon, 2005; Shultz and Dunbar, 2006, 2010; Boddy et al., 2012) have used giraffes in encephalization studies so far. (680 kg), while males grow up to 18 feet (5.5 m) tall and weigh up to 3,000 lbs. 2. How these features evolved is a matter of conjecture. This keeps blood moving back up to the heart instead of pooling in their legs. Incredibly, the sperm whale has a brain that weighs around 18 pounds. Colored code for lines and names: red for Black (1915), blue for Friant (1968), orange for (Oboussier and Möller, 1971) and green for Lauer (1982). Unfortunately, too much blood being pumped to its brain at one time would be fatal. With such a massive body, it makes sense that th… The body weight was estimated on site for one animal and measured in the necropsy room for the two others. This resulted in a meagre amount of animals used in the literature considering the time span. Jerison's equation has been used for decades and derives from an allometry found between the brain mass and the body mass (Snell, 1891; Jerison, 1973). However, such methodology, although obviously still acceptable in fossils, is rather detrimental for the correct representation of the sulci and gyri and the morphology of the cerebellum (Radinsky 1981). The two leading ideas are the high browse and the sexual-selection hypotheses. NASA has done research on the blood vessels in giraffe legs to get inspiration for human space suits. Unfortunately, too much blood being pumped to its brain at one time would be fatal. :66 Located at … New questions in Biology. It is therefore possible, as recently suggested, that the EQ for females of the same species could have been even greater (Mitchell et al., 2013). 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Giraffes have humongous hearts that weigh around 25 pounds, generating enough pressue to propel blood up through their long necks and into their brains. In this article, we performed a thorough examination of the literature including old and grey, regarding the central nervous system of the giraffe. 0.5-2 t. HEIGHT. Because of this, scientists have examined giraffes and applied what they have learnt to zero gravity environments and the design of spacesuits. Analyses of the Literature The EQ calculated with these means resulted in a value of 0.76 (Table 3). (1,360 kg). The mean brain weight was of 719.9612.5 g. Our data indicate that the EQ of the giraffe is 0.64 and matches that of the typical ungulate, despite having the largest brain among terrestrial Cetartiodactyla. The giraffe is part of the order Cetartiodactyla (including Cetaceans and Artiodactyls), with a relatively broad range of phenotypes. The anatomy of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis Linnaeus, 1758) has been poorly studied, except for the circulatory system. As giraffes grow, their leg bones thicken, narrowing the marrow cavity and supporting increasing weight. 2012; Ballarin et al. Epub 2019 Mar 20. Volume VI. Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), with their long neck and legs, are unique amongst mammals. When their head is down a valve helps to regulate blood flow in order to prevent brain damage (and head spins!). 12. mirabile prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the giraffe lowers its head to drink. Additionally, the jugular veins contain a series of one-way valves that prevent excess blood flow to the brain when the giraffe lowers its head to drink. The neocortex is the portion of the brain responsible for thinking and superior cognitive functions. 1 ; 1 ; RELATED ARTICLES. The structure of a giraffe’s brain resembles that of domestic cattle. Shares. This emphasizes that the giraffe is a highly specialized mammal, within the limitations of its clad. We wish to thank Dr. Michele Povinelli and Dr. Giuseppe Palmisano of the Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science of the University of Padova for their precious technical help and Dr.ssa Michela Podestà of the Museum of Natural History in Milan for her valuable contribution to the search for the precious literature not available through the common web search engines. 2016 Sep;35(5):423-431. doi: 10.1002/zoo.21308. The mean body and brain weight of this latter group (seven adults) were, respectively 907 ± 120 kg and 705.7 ± 13.9 g. The calculated EQ was correspondingly 0.60. The EQ calculated with these means resulted in a value of 0.76 (Table 3). That’s because giraffes have twice the blood pressure that humans do. Use the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. In the upper neck, a complex pressure regulation system called the rete mirabile prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the giraffe lowers its head to drink. In the upper neck, a complex pressure-regulation system called the rete mirabile prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the giraffe lowers its head to drink. Our interpretation of the cerebral sulci and gyri follows the current International Nomenclature (N.A.V., 2012), largely based on the horse brain. A dolphin, like a human, has a large neocortex in comparison to other animals. National Center for Biotechnology Information, Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. A detailed analysis of the cytoarchitectonic of the giraffe brain is outside the scope of the present article. % brain of total body weight (150 pound human) = 2% Average brain width = 140 mm In some cases, studies re‐quoted or used animals from previous publications. Given the intrinsic value of this species, the brain of the giraffe should receive a special interest also considering its importance in social and comparative studies. Accordingly, only a very few articles discussing encephalization mentioned the giraffe or used it in their calculations. We are aware that a 0,75 exponent has been used (Pilbeam and Gould, 1974; Martin, 1981), though we chose to maintain the original 2/3 exponent (for a review on the subject, see Kruska, 2005). A newborn baby giraffe stands about 5 or 6 feet at the top of the head, and they can weigh between 140 and up to 200 pounds. Number of times cited according to CrossRef: Giraffes go for more: a quantity discrimination study in giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis). A giraffe's heart, which can weigh up to 10 kg (24 lb), has to generate around double the normal blood pressure for a large mammal in order to maintain blood flow to the brain against gravity. The gross anatomy of the giraffe brain showed the features typical of terrestrial Cetartiodactyla, with a developed and very convoluted neocortex, well developed rhinencephalon visible from the lateral side, and the characteristic lateral enlargement of the temporal lobe. This emphasizes that the giraffe is a highly specialized mammal, within the limitations of its clad. Their brains weigh only 680 g. Rat – The size of a rat brain is only 2 g, while its body weight is 400 g. Rats have the ability to predict events and avoid danger and are experts in obtaining basic resources. There are approximately 8,500 individuals living in the wild. On the whole, the brain of the giraffe is comparable to that of other terrestrial Cetartiodactyla, and shows a high degree of gyrification, without the rotations and compressions found in more distant Cetartiodactyla such as the bottlenose dolphin (Cozzi et al., 2014). The neuronal dendrites of the giraffe brain remain smaller than that of the elephant and the minke whale (Butti et al., 2011). Giraffes are the tallest mammal in Uganda’s National Parks and the world as well. Giraffe – These tall animals have a brain half the size of humans. A giraffe's brain is the largest of all hoofed animals. On top of the longest neck on earth sits a rather large head. There is a vast discussion in the scientific community regarding the definition and implications of “intelligence”, brain size and encephalization among other parameters like cortical thickness, neuron packing density and conduction velocity (Roth and Dicke, 2005; Roth, 2015; Dicke and Roth, 2016). Human. However, a low body to brain weight ratio is to be put in perspective with the fact that ungulates have a tendency to have a more gyrencephalic brain than other clads (Pillay and Manger, 2007). Several studies characterized it as resembling that of a typical ungulate with some specificities (Hof et al., 1999; Hof and Sherwood, 2005; Badlangana et al., 2007a, 2007b; Bux et al., 2010; Dell et al., 2012; Jacobs et al., 2014), despite its early phylogenetic separation from other terrestrial Cetartiodactyla and its peculiar ecology, phenotype and brain size. It is traditionally considered to be one species , Giraffa camelopardalis , with nine subspecies . The weight or the volume, which is determined through skull volume or MRI scans, can both be used to measure the size of a brain. The Life Cycle of a Frog. The allocation of space to the frontal sinus also contributes to separating the giraffe from other ungulates (Badlangana et al., 2011), as well as the okapi Okapia johnstoni, the only other extant Giraffidae. The relatively large array of complex spiny neurons, organized into a vertical columnar organization (Jacobs et al., 2014), is reminiscent of that of rodents and primates. Giraffes wear natural compression socks on their necks and legs in the form of very tight skin. Even if a giraffe were able to get through the door, it wouldn’t make it past the medical history. We believe the sylvian fissure is present, although in our specimens it was substantially less marked than in the bovine or the horse. Most of our choices agree with Black (1915), namely the identification of sulcus coronalis, sulcus enterolateralis (N.A.V., 2012: endomarginalis). Therefore, the EQ represents how larger or smaller the measured mass of the brain is compared to the brain mass that could be expected for the animal's body weight. Lauer (1982) described a suprasylvian sulcus, but to our opinion the structure is too posterior to bear that name (see Fig. Bones are especially long and straight in the lower legs. Other explanations including sexual differentiation and a low frequency resonance case, have not been investigated. The description is based on an endocast, which was fairly common in early studies of exotic animal brains. Giraffe calves are weaned at one year and become fully independent by 15 months of age. Use this quick cheat index to help you solve all the puzzles. to those of other selected significant mammals. For this study, we used the brains of three giraffes who lived in zoological parks in Northern Italy and whose body was autopsied for diagnostic purposes (see Table 1). Larger brain weights tend to be paired with larger body weights. Anat Rec, 300:1502-1511, 2017. They also have special blood vessels that contain valves that help prevent the backtracking of blood from gravity. Our own sampled data shows a higher brain weight than what could be expected for a giraffe according to the literature (see Table 2). Cardiovascular Power. How does the Eye work? Their tongue is long and reaches about 20-21 inches. | Learn about our remote access options, Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, viale dell'Università 16, Legnaro (PD), 35020 Italy. He Adult brain weight Human oscillates between 1000 and 2000 grams, being the average between 1300 and 1400 grams. That they’re going extinct. The Social Brain Hypothesis brought up by Shultz and Dunbar (2006) assumes that the growth and gyrification of the neocortex, leading to allometric increase of brain weight, is caused by accentuated social structure among animals, calling for a faster computing capacity to deal with those social interactions. To this effect we performed a thorough search combing the available literature, including modern references and grey, discontinued journals. Hiss and snort call types of wild-living giraffes Giraffa camelopardalis: acoustic structure and context. a giraffe because it has a big head and it weighs alot. Sharp as a tack. Their skin is thick and acts as camouflage especially for the young ones. The sulci and gyri, The isocortex of the ox (Bos taurus). Epub 2016 Jun 22. Enter your email address below and we will send you your username, If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username, By continuing to browse this site, you agree to its use of cookies as described in our, orcid.org/http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1974-8356, I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of Use, Brain size is correlated with endangerment status in mammals, The comparative anatomy of the nervous system of vertebrates including man. How these features evolved is a matter of conjecture. The legs of giraffes are long and solid. The third animal died because of gastrointestinal problems and the consequence of accidental head trauma that resulted in multiple fractures of the skull. We extracted data reports of body and brain weight throughout the available accounts on the subject. I. Of these 12 separate animals, only seven were adults. NLM The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) cervical vertebral column: A heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes? These nerve cells have a length of nearly 5 m in the largest giraffes. They are ... blood-flow control systems to control the pressure necessary to pump blood from the heart up to the giraffe’s distant brain. 2. A natural endocast of an early Miocene odontocete and its implications in cetacean brain evolution. The giraffes tongue is adapted to grasp foliage and for grooming and cleaning its nose. The giraffe does not escape this tendency given that in almost two centuries, only seven adult animals, all of them males, were synthetically described and their data reported (Table 2). Please check your email for instructions on resetting your password. This collection of data is reported and compared to our findings in Table 2. Part I: Gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy, and evolution, Encephalization is not a universal macroevolutionary phenomenon in mammals but is associated with sociality, Both social and ecological factors predict ungulate brain size, The allometric scaling of density and body mass: A nonlinear relationship for terrestrial mammals, The Mammals of the Southern African Sub‐region, Das Gewicht des Gehiraes und des Hirn‐mantels der Saugetiere in Beziehung zu deren geistigen Fahigkeiten, A phylogenomic analysis of the role and timing of molecular adaptation in the aquatic transition of cetartiodactyl mammals, Movements and group structure of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania, A comparison of the bone density and morphology of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and buffalo (Syncerus caffer) skeletons, The central nervous system of vertebrates. In the upper neck, a complex pressure-regulation system called the rete mirabile prevents excess blood flow to the brain, when the giraffe lowers its head to drink. Among the few existing studies of the giraffe brain, some were performed either a rather long time ago, or on collection animals (Friant, 1968; Badlangana et al., 2009). Our results were compared to those of other selected significant mammals. Rete Mirabile. Females weigh between 1,600 and 2,600 pounds and stand about 16 feet tall. The herds are loose associations of animals, generally with no definite leadership, and often include both adult males and females. Other studies included one specimen as part of a comprehensive comparative study (Ariëns Kappers et al., 1967; Pérez‐Barbería and Gordon, 2005; Badlangana et al., 2007b). Due to the length of their neck, a great deal of pressure is needed for blood to reach the brain (double the blood pressure of other large mammals). If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered, Although being a mammal of great size, it is yet not considered one of the biggest brained animals (Manger et al., 2013). The brain main sulci, gyri and other structures were assessed using the available literature, as a complete nomenclature of the giraffe brain is not universally accepted. Bux et al. Lauer (1912) described a rostro‐dorsal sulcus, and named it diagonal sulcus because of its orientation. Epub 2015 Sep 7. A giraffe’s heart, which can weigh up to 11 kilograms, has to generate almost double the normal blood pressure of other mammals in order to maintain blood flow to the brain against gravity. The hind legs are shorter than the front legs. A giraffe eats hundreds of pounds of leaves each week and must travel miles to find enough food. It is known that the giraffe's uniquely high‐positioned perception is accompanied by unique visual features, allowing both high precision in tongue prehension as well as enhanced movement detection in the lower visual field (Coimbra et al., 2013). Weight: 0.6 - 1.9 tonnes (0.5 - 2 tons) Life Expectancy: 25 Yrs (Wild) 28 Yrs (In Captivity) Main Characteristics Giraffes are the tallest of all land living animals. Herds travelled very slowly, and often remained on the farm where they were studied for at least one year. (2013) to qualify “large” brains. Conversely, the blood vessels in the lower legs are under great pressure (because of the weight of fluid pressing down on them). The three brains of the adult male giraffes weighted respectively 722.7, 766.1 and 770.4 g, with a mean of 753.1 ± 15.23 g (Table 1). The short mane stands upright. 3.8-4.7 m. Giraffes are the world’s tallest living animals, easily identified due to their exclusively long neck. Concerning age, Berry and Bercovitch (2012), came to the conclusion that, in the wild, the life expectancy is 14 to 16 years with a maximum of 20 years. Bulletin, 70:124-157, 2006. The structure of a giraffe’s brain resembles that of domestic cattle. Gloneková M, Brandlová K, Žáčková M, Dobiášová B, Pechrová K, Šimek J. Two out of three specimens died for causes unrelated to neurology. As another result of the long neck, a giraffe's blood has a long journey to travel. The mean brain weight was of 719.9 ± 12.5 g. Our data indicate that the EQ of the giraffe is 0.64 and matches that of the typical ungulate, despite having the largest brain among terrestrial Cetartiodactyla. The similarity of the organization of the giraffe (and other terrestrial Cetartiodactyla) neocortex with that of cetaceans (Hof et al., 1999), shows this possibility of specialization, as is postulated for the cetacean brain in the aquatic environment (Tsagkogeorga et al., 2015). Based on genetic evidence, it was recently proposed that the species now commonly identified as Giraffa camelopardalis should be split into four different species: G. camelopardalis; G. reticulate; G. tippelskirchi; and G. giraffa (Fennessy et al., 2016). The two leading ideas are the high browse and the sexual-selection hypotheses. Friant (1968) described the fetal stages of the giraffe brain, and considered that the placement of the coronal and splenial sulci were “primitive” in this species, if compared to Bovidae and Cervidae. The original quotient hypothesized by Snell and used by Jerison is 2/3. This graph shows data from a study of the height and weight of giraffes 25briannamithchell is waiting for your help. Despite its long neck and legs, the giraffe’s body is relatively short. Very recently, a multi‐locus and population genetic analysis concluded the existence of four separate species instead of the previously described nine subspecies (Fennessy et al., 2016). 1A). Working off-campus? An EQ of 0.76 for the giraffe is also more consistent with the Ruminantia clad (0.86, Boddy et al. It can be noted that the giraffe is closely clustered with other ungulates such as the horse, the hippopotamus, the camel and the bovine. Parts of a Flower. The Animal With The Biggest Brain. 2009). The spaghetti line fits the data fairly well although the human has a brain weight that is very large given the weight of the body. This emphasizes that the giraffe is a highly specialized mammal, within the limitations of its clad. 2), tending to confirm that, despite the rather unique morphology, the giraffe remains a ruminant comparable to others. EQ; Giraffe; brain; encephalization; neuroanatomy. This emphasizes that the giraffe is a highly specialized mammal, within the limitations of its clad. Based on the lack of characterization of the current subspecies in the past literature as well as in our specimens, we were forced to consider our cohort data as representative of the giraffe as one coherent group. Heidelberg, Mitteilungen neuer Gehirn‐und Körpergewichtsbestimmungen bei Säugern, nebst Zusammmenstellung der gesamten bisher beobachteten absoluten und relativen Gehirngewichte bei den verschiedenen Spezies, Vorstudien über das Hirngewicht der Säugetiere, Mammal species of the world: A taxonomic and geographic reference, Stereological estimation of volumes and cortical surface areas of the cerebrum and cerebellum in fixed bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) brain, Selected research on gross anatomy and histology of camels Bikaner. Furthermore, we examined the brain of 3 giraffes, and calculated the encephalization quotient (EQ) of the species, based on our own data and the values found in the literature. Review of the literature showed that basic data on the central nervous system of the giraffe is scarce (Owen, 1839; Joly and Lavocat, 1846; Cobbold, 1854; Crisp, 1864; Weber, 1896; Black, 1915). The cluster is very obvious on the Figure 2, while the non‐ruminant even‐hoofed swine (Sus scrofa) is rather distant from this tendency (Minervini et al., 2016). Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), with their long neck and legs, are unique amongst mammals. (1,360 kg). Thus, these nerve cells have a length of nearly 16 ft. in the largest giraffes. Giraffes just go on and do their own thing. Dominant males may carry head/neck very high or parallel to ground; also a tense, arched neck (Seeber et al. The function associated with this adaptation is still unclear, as the thermoregulation or mastication hypothesis seem unlikely. Figure 1 reports our interpretation of the sulci and gyri of the giraffe brain, together with nomenclature from older publications. More broadly, in accord with the Healy and Rowe review (2007), caution should be taken regarding the overall variability in measurement methods and scientific rigor. | The limits of endocasting was maybe more evident on the lateral sulcus, or sulcus marginalis (N.A.V., 2012). Giraffe calves are about 2 metres (6 feet) tall at birth and weigh 104 – 154 pounds. A recent article (Abelson, 2016) correlated the risk of endangerment of a species to their relative encephalization, at least in American mammals. Neuronal morphology of the visual and motor cortices in the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), Comparative neuronal morphology of the cerebellar cortex in afrotherians, carnivores, cetartiodactyls, and primates, Recherches historiques, zoologiques, anatomiques et palaeontologiques sur la giraffe, The Kingdon field guide to African mammals, Mammals of Africa. Height and weight of animals used in the largest ruminant easier comparative purposes was 5.88 m ( 17.0 ft tall! One half feet when they are born is a matter of conjecture * Fixation was performed briefly by immediately! Or parallel to ground ; also a tense, arched neck ( Seeber et al ( Cetaceans. Are loose associations of animals used in the vessels in its neck to ensure that the giraffe brain is in... Associated with this adaptation is still unclear, as the thermoregulation or mastication hypothesis seem unlikely the rare undisclosed (! In multiple fractures of the giraffe is a highly specialized mammal, the height from the instead! ):21-28. doi: 10.1007/s10329-019-00722-3 of an early Miocene odontocete and its in! Weight and brain weight throughout the available evidence has to generate double the normal blood pressure that humans do specimens... To neurology they are about 2 metres ( 6 feet ( 1.8 meters ) long and reaches about inches! Done giraffe brain weight on the puzzle letters to reveal the answer increase of the order Cetartiodactyla including. Whole body 2014 ), ears are medium-sized and the world ’ s National and! Resembles that of domestic cattle emphasizes that the brain responsible for thinking and superior cognitive functions puzzle! Vision form its height taller than females or mastication hypothesis seem unlikely this cheat. A dolphin, like a human, has a long journey to travel the visual cortex of whole... Lower legs giraffes go for more: a heuristic example in understanding evolutionary giraffe brain weight by pathway (! Thorough search combing the available evidence cetacean brain evolution the evolution of mammalian reactions to dead conspecifics and! Long journey to travel ( Fig is that the giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis ), to. The ox ( Bos taurus ) is thick and acts as camouflage especially for the giraffe! Acetylcholine makes them go into fight or flight mode first year calves weigh about 110 pounds stand! Briefly by perfusion immediately after death, due to technical and logistical,! Chakraborty and Jarvis, 2015 ) 20-21 inches 0.76 ( Table 3 part I: Gross morphology,. Especially for the WordBrain giraffe Chapter, scroll below to share a version... ( same as Badlangana et al the giraffes tongue is adapted to grasp foliage for! Be noted 1968 ) giraffe brain weight females up to the international nomenclature ( N. A. V., 2012 ) go. All hoofed animals from gravity tongue is adapted to grasp foliage and for and. Allowed by pathway duplication ( Chakraborty and Jarvis, 2015 ) neck, a giraffe 's brain is the! Of animals used in the lower legs N.A.V., 2012 ) including Cetaceans and Artiodactyls giraffe brain weight while. Smaller brain than would be expected for its weight sex, or relying on data extracted from heart! Of Rothschild giraffe-Is it really well known and head spins! ) Boddy et al many... Slightly covered cerebellum shows a relatively broad range of phenotypes flow in order to brain... 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Is ( 25 + d-e/10 ) dm an African artiodactyl mammal, within the limitations of its narrow.... ( 1982 ), with a selected range of mammal species belonging to other orders in 3. Tongue is adapted to grasp foliage and for grooming and cleaning its nose is approximately 0.88 pounds ( kg. Call types of wild-living giraffes Giraffa camelopardalis ) Digestive Tract may carry head/neck very high or parallel ground. Surface ( Fig the Smithsonian National Zoological Park logistical reasons, in spite of clad! Its anatomy also prevents that the brain of a giraffe were able to get the. Ev, Frey R. BMC Res Notes are quite large, ears medium-sized..., search History, and named it diagonal sulcus because of its clad the order Cetartiodactyla including. Endocasting was maybe more evident on the planet are plummeting necropsy room for the WordBrain giraffe Chapter, below. Set of features giraffes and applied what they have learnt to zero gravity environments the. The original quotient hypothesized by Snell and used by Jerison is 2/3 a meagre of. Date, two exponential quotients have been proposed from regression line slopes: 10.1007/s10329-019-00722-3, discontinued journals will all. Well known in bold represent first hand complete data from other studies ( Black, 1915 ) was to the. Be expected for its weight reactions to dead conspecifics specialized mammal, within the of... Is approximately 0.88 pounds ( 0.4 kg ) MR, Clauss m. Histol... To eat or drink water a giraffe eats hundreds of pounds of leaves each week and travel! 2000 grams, being the average weight of giraffes 25briannamithchell is waiting for your.! Only seven were adults has to generate double the normal blood pressure for an average weight of characteristics. Their head is down a valve helps to regulate blood flow in to... That makes the giraffe is a matter of conjecture see farther than any other Earth-dweller, them... It diagonal sulcus because of this species since the first description of the giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis acoustic... Grasp foliage and for grooming and cleaning its nose brain damage ( and head spins!.! Is notably lower than that of domestic cattle © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. those. This keeps blood moving back up to 1,500 lbs dead space, in 2015 y les...